E-Manufacturing: A Technology Review

Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. E Manufacturing a Technology Review Dr. H. K. Shivanand, Nanjundaradhya N. V, Prabhakar Kammar, Divya shree S, Keshavamurthy YC. Abstract: With a rapid change in technology especially in the manufacturing sector, customers are demanding more value, less risk, and better integration of products, hence there is a need to change the manufacturing strategies, which can result in improved performance thereby meeting the customer demands. This paper critically reviews a new area to overcome the above problem called â€Å"E – Manufacturing† which can integrate customers, products and suppliers with the help of Internet Technology. The concept of E – Manufacturing, its development, tools and potential benefits are discussed along with application examples on Automobiles. Areas like E – Maintenance, E – Diagnostics, E – Business related to E – Manufacturing is also discussed. By adopting such a manufacturing technique zero downtime, reduced product error, customer satisfaction, quick manufacturing changes can be accomplished. In addition the concept of E-Manufacturing applied to the manufacture of gears is also discussed there by providing better understanding of this process. like ERP, MES, SCADA, and even newer acronyms like Enterprise Asset Management (EAM) and Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) are communicating with each other, and sharing data through internet connections. II. EVOLUTION OF E MANUFACTURING For decades, the dominant manufacturing model was based on principles of mass production [2]. Standardized parts and processes made economies of scale achievable, but limited design flexibility and customization. The outsourcing and lean manufacturing movements of the 1980s and 1990s drove the emergence of a new paradigm, termed the Quality Management era. Manufacturing companies, particularly large Original Equipment Manufacturers’ (OEM) outsourcing shifts critical elements of the design and production process onto a manufacturer’s supply chain. The lean manufacturing movement places a premium on time and inventory reduction. Combining the attributes of the Quality era suggests a very different business model for manufacturing – enterprise integration or E-Manufacturing. In the E-Manufacturing era, companies will be able to exchange information of all types with their suppliers at the speed of light. III. E MANUFACTURING E-Manufacturing can be most cogently and generally described as the application of the Internet to Manufacturing [3], further E-Manufacturing is becoming popular with the increased use of the internet. Due the widespread availability of the Internet; large-scale distributed projects in manufacturing are becoming popular. It is the methodology and framework for collaborative Virtual Manufacturing. The ability to exchange information and automate manufacturing processes forms the building blocks of the virtual manufacturing companies of the near future. It covers all aspects of manufacturing – sales, marketing, customer service, new product development, procurement, supplier relationships and logistics manufacturing strategy development and so on. As a result, it is now so much easier to allow certain people gain access to certain sections of the system, according to whatever criteria they like; maintenance people need certain parts of the data, but not others; operators would be able to access a limited number of devices; managers would be allowed to monitor, but not change anything, etc. New technologies such as the Extensible Markup Language (XML) are now making it easier to share data between different application programs, and to set up computers to take actions based on criteria †¹ for instance, to order supplies when inventories reach a critical low point. The E-Manufacturing WCE 2008 Index Terms— E – Manufacturing, E – Maintenance, E – Diagnostics, Automobile, Gears. I. INTRODUCTION F manufacturing companies what matters more is that how efficiently their company can compete globally with others as an organization followed by meeting the day to day requirements of the customer and exchange of hassle free information while not focusing only on sales of the company [1]. Today’s customers provide top priority for money, better quality and less risk. In order to cater to the needs of the customer, manufacturing companies have adopted a new technique called E Manufacturing. It is concerned with the use of the Internet and E-Business technologies in manufacturing industries wherein a network can be established between the customer, the manufacturer and the product. The internet offers a frictionless path for exchange of information. The concepts of E-Maintenance, E-Business, E Diagnostics and ECare have led to the formation of an E-Factory which can produce quality products at remarkable speeds. In short, the customer is just a click away from a business deal. Within manufacturing concerns, the various enterprise-wide systems OR today’s Manuscript received October 11, 2007. H. K. Shivanand is with the University Visvesvaraya College of Engineering , Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA 560001 phone: 918022961887 e-mail: Shivanand. [email  protected] gmail. com Prabhakar Kammar, is working at MVJ College of Engineering, Bangalore Nanjundaradhya N. V is working at RV College of Engineering, Bangalore Divya shree S is working at BEL, Bangalore. Keshavamurthy YC, ME (Manufacturing Sc &Engg), UVCE, Bangalore. ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. technique also affects products as well since it is possible to use Internet technologies to add new product functions and to provide new services. The Internet is being used even at the shop floor level. For instance, computer numerical control devices (CNC’s) can be connected via intranets or the Internet to ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), production planning, or maintenance systems. As such, the E-Manufacturing project aims to develop an appropriate framework for a common platform to enable distributed planning and control in manufacturing for quicker, easier, secure and cost-effective collaborations. The developed system will allow dispersed engineering team members to work together productively, as if they were under one roof. This transformation of the enterprise coincides with the increasing content of information contained in products and processes. This new production enterprise is information-rich. The major functions and objectives of e-manufacturing are: (a) provide a transparent, seamless and automated information exchange process to enable an only handle information once (OHIO) environment; (b) improve the utilization of plant floor assets using a holistic approach combining the tools of predictive maintenance techniques; (c) links entire SCM operation and asset optimization; and (d) deliver customer services utilizing the latest predictive intelligence methods and Tether-free technologies [4] Fig 2: Before Implementing E Manufacturing Fig 3: After Implementing E Manufacturing IV. E MANUFACTURING TOOLS Implementation of the E-Manufacturing tools results in cost saving, regardless of the company size. E-Manufacturing tools enable connectivity among the various modules of the manufacturing process. Areas where the E-Manufacturing tools need to be developed are listed below [5 – 9]. Data and information transformation tool: The large amounts of raw data collected during a manufacturing process are rendered useless, unless the data is gathered and transformed into some useful information which may be used to monitor a system. To understand this better a simple example is taken below. Consider a CNC machine hooked to the Internet as shown in Figure 4. It shows the way data and information are transformed from the machine to the internet. Here the idea is to monitor the health of the tool [life of the tool] fixed in the CNC machine. This technique can also be used to calibrate a machine from the Internet. Fig 1 Evolution of E Manufacturing (Source NACFAM) The contrast between the traditional system and the system with E-Manufacturing is indicated below [3] ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 WCE 2008 Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. Fig 4: Tool Monitoring in a CNC Machine Using Internet. Prediction Tools: Apart from data being gathered, certain tools need to be developed, which can predict or detect the degradation of various parts of the machine, performance loss and trend of failure. Developing a tool which monitors these aspects could set the trend for an advanced diagnostic system. Optimization Tools: As far as E-Manufacturing is concerned data can be accessed from any part of the globe at any time. Hence certain tools need to be developed which can optimize the data and provide easy to read results. For example, these tools should be able to provide the performance of a drill bit for various drilling operation verses time, temperature, tool tip failure with various materials etc. Synchronization Tools: This is an important tool in the E-Manufacturing environment, which can associate various groups such as customer’s suppliers and manufacturers, where first hand information needs to be sent to these groups during emergencies, for example – if tool needs a replacement or tool has worn out then the information is sent from first the manufacturer to the supplier and tool maker where the tool can be assessed for performance. The new connectivity and communications tools will boost productivity, profits, speed to market, and flexibility for those manufactures who are willing to upgrade. Some of the common E-manufacturing tools are SMS, E Mail, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Fax and Infrared Connectivity. V. E MAINTENANCE Progressive plant executives, maintenance managers, and work planners have always wanted to have information about the condition of equipment assets at their fingertips when they need it. Unfortunately, it typically is scattered among separate information systems. It is difficult to view, compile and synchronize the different information types on the same computer terminal. If one wants to maximize business continuity by increasing device up-time and minimize the time, costs and headaches associated with device administration he must adopt the E-Maintenance strategy. It is a network that integrates and synchronizes the various maintenance and reliability applications to gather and deliver asset information where it is needed, when it is needed. Interconnectivity of the islands of maintenance and reliability information is embodied in E-Maintenance. The EMaintenance network can be developed from a collection of information islands by using a single proprietary system, a custom bridge, or by using an open systems bridge. EMaintenance also removes the need for manual meter readings that is your device administration is virtually reduced to nil. It is estimated that 15- 40% of indirect costs of manufacturing is maintenance related. About 50% are unnecessary corrective maintenance, which costs 10-15 times more than predictive maintenance. Furthermore, 25% of maintenance is preventive, which is 3-5 times more expensive then predictive. An effective E-Manufacturing strategy uses predictive maintenance techniques to forecast equipment wear and predict failure. Apart from this, it also alerts MRO managers to unexpected problems. This allows managers to proactively correct problems, thus maximizing the use of machinery and personnel while minimizing preventive maintenance expenses. Predicting the reliability of plant-floor equipment can be the difference between a few minutes of preventive maintenance and hours or days of downtime for corrective maintenance. Ultimately, predictive maintenance, computerized maintenance management systems or CMMS, and effective utilization of maintenance specialists make E Manufacturing work. VI. E DIAGNOSTICS E-Diagnostics is the reactive and proactive remote diagnosis, maintenance and repair of equipment by service personnel. EDiagnostics offers many businesses the promise of better equipment reliability and performance at a much lower cost. It is the hardened, reliable acquisition of time-stamped, highspeed information from the tool registers and ancillary data points, database retention and management, parsing and analysis. A complete E-Diagnostics solution would include the following: (a) Remote capture, transmission, analysis and dissemination of equipment performance data. (b) Remote takeover of equipment to manipulate equipment settings during and after repair. (c) A trigger for replenishing spare parts. (d) Faster and more effective response to field service engineering requests, bringing the experts remotely to the problem. (e) Reduced equipment and process variation, through better visibility and response to differences in equipment performance among machines. ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 WCE 2008 Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. (f) Preventive response to pending equipment failures through the use of advanced process control (real-time multivariate statistical analysis). (g) Enhanced next-generation tool development through improved awareness of deficiencies in current equipment designs. Traditional E-Diagnostics systems monitor tool performance and provide â€Å"maintenance needed† alerts to service and engineering personnel. Much more can be derived from the rich sensor data generated as wafers pass through process chambers. This step in E-Diagnostics is to employ proven enterprise data mining (EDM) techniques to correlate device yield and performance with the vast amount of tool-level and wafer-level chamber sensor data. With this new approach, yield and process-level issues can be uncovered down to a particular sensor reading on a specific tool process chamber. Once a specific tool issue can be identified to have an impact on process results, specific E-Diagnostics monitors can be targeted to prevent future yield and process excursions, completing a closed loop process learning effort. The steps to be followed to implement the E Diagnostics strategy in an industry are as shown below. maintenance programme. Computerized maintenance management systems optimize the deployment of all maintenance, repair, and operating (MRO) resources, such as people, spare parts, tools and facilities, and allow the creation of a planned maintenance programme for all assets. EProcurement allows the replacement of stock with information and offers direct access to spares at lowest cost. For the successful application of E-Manufacturing there must exist a partnership between the supplier and the customer. The goal is to deploy best practices in e-business processes as quickly and effectively as possible while ensuring a quantifiable return on investment (ROI). The benefits of adopting E business strategy are; (a) Quick installation of software updates with no need for expensive integration projects. (b) One enterprise wide view of the customer, product or process. (c) Global deployment from one instance of the software, making all applications accessible globally via a standard Web browser. (d) Simplified systems and maintenance for IT staff due to the one-vendor approach. e) Streamlined business processes. (f) Better decision-making and business intelligence because of the single-database architecture and preintegrated applications and rapid deployment at lower cost. VIII. AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY AND GEARS Every automobile industry has an umpteen number of divisions, each division manufacturing a particular system of the automobile- like the steering system, brake system, engine, suspens ion, chassis and body, interiors, safety division, quality control division, etc. With so many departments working towards the creation of the same end product, a lot of time and money is spent in redesigning and related cases which may arise due to inefficient data transfer or delayed transfer of important information between the departments. Such a problem can be sorted out by implementing the EManufacturing strategy into the industry. The internet can be used to share data and information between various departments and between manufacturers worldwide. Data sharing can be extensively used between the head office and the various branches and service centers of a company which may be located at different locations around the globe. For example, if a component is found defective in one of the branches the information is relayed immediately to the other branches warning them to arrest the production of that component immediately. As a result of this, huge amounts of time, material and money are saved. The internet is a means of communication between production engineers, the manufacturing engineers, and the design engineers. Adopting this new technique can reduce the complexity of the part, without jeopardizing performance. Using CAE tools in the design process may have a profound impact on savings. In many cases, the virtual prototype is a much more accurate representation of what we designed than the physical Fig 5: E Diagnostics VII. E BUSINESS In today’s world it’s the â€Å"Time Factor† that can make or break an industry. Gone are the days of buying different applications from a host of technology vendors and spending countless months and dollars integrating them. Increasingly, the customers are demanding more customized products, faster delivery schedules, and instant access to order status. Results have to be assessed in financial terms, with return on net assets or return on capital employed, the key measure. EBusiness promises a solution to this customer demanding market. Automated scheduling provides a better method of managing production orders and increases the visibility of current and future scheduling activities. Tracking involves the collection, analysis, viewing and reporting of production data. To get the best productivity from the assets deployed, three main areas need to be addressed: Condition based maintenance; computerized maintenance management; EProcurement. Condition-based maintenance predicts the deterioration of assets that allows the planning of maintenance actions more effectively and monitors the effectiveness of the ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 WCE 2008 Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. prototype. Apart from adopting this strategy in the production line it can also be used in the maintenance program of an automobile. For example, if you only repair your car when it breaks down, you face costly corrective maintenance. A preventive maintenance schedule, based on the manufacturer's recommendations, may prevent breakdowns. Preventive maintenance is possible using E-Diagnostics. When a car is taken in for servicing, it is hooked onto the diagnostic computer which indicates existing problems. Moreover the service centers are constantly hooked up to the internet and are updated on availability of spares, latest trends in servicing and solutions to commonly occurring problems. All this information is made available from their counterparts from around the world. To add to this the entire service history of the vehicle is uploaded to the net so that it is made available to all of the company’s service centers around the globe which will help identify the status of the vehicle wherever and whenever one wants to service it. Gears form an important component in most machines as well as in automobiles. Today’s Customers demand a multitude of gears in a short span of time, without any compromise on quality. The solution to this challenge is E Manufacturing. One can hook up the gear manufacturing machine to the net. It offers fully integrated production control software for estimating, order and job control, job travelers, scheduling, data collection, inventory control, purchasing, work center loading and cost accounting. Various design parameters can be entered by the customer and modifications may also be made until the last minute. Once the system is in place economic and efficient manufacture of gears is imminent. 1. Synchronize Production Processes with Business Processes. . Orchestrate Upstream Flows of Work, Information, and Material. 3. Automate Business Processes & Workflows within the Enterprise 4. Give Control to Managers with Plant Information & Analysis Tools. 5. Integrate the Design Process among All Collaborating Parties. 6. Leverage Bi-directional Down-stream Information. 7. Enable Collaborative Maintenance and Manufacturing Support. X. CONCLUSION This paper discussed cer tain key areas and subsets of the E-Manufacturing strategy which when implemented will yield priceless benefits to an industry that implements it. Further the concept of an E-Factory promises greater increase in productivity and performance, while at the same time decreases production costs. However, for E-Manufacturing to be a success, co-operation between various public and private sector organizations is mandatory. This new thinking paradigm to integrate web-enabled and predictive intelligence for manufacturing systems is becoming a new benchmark strategy for manufacturing companies to compete in the twenty-first century. REFERENCES [1] [2] White paper â€Å"Making sense of E-Manufacturing: A Road map for manufacturers Industry† Rockwell Automation. Exploiting E Manufacturing: Interoperability of Software Systems used by US Manufacturing â€Å" National Coalition for Advanced Manufacturing, 2001, pp 1-13 Manufacturing Engineering Handbook – by Hwaiyu Geng, McGraw Hill Professional 1 edition, March 1, 2004, Koc M, Ni J, Lee J. Introduction of e-manufacturing. Proceeding of the International Conference on Frontiers on Design and Manufacturing, Dalian, China, July 2002. E – Manufacturing Review – Jay Lee – Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing Journal. , May 23 – 2003 Lee J, Ahad A, [email  protected] M. E-manufacturing—its elements and impact. Proceedings of the Annual Institute of Industrial Engineering (IIE) Conference, Advances in Production Session, Dallas, TX, USA, May 21–23, 2001. Lee J, Ni J. Web-enabled e-manufacturing. Proceeding of Sixth International Manufacturing Technology in Hong Kong, December 2001 Lee J, Ni J. E-manufacturing and e-business integration: a case study. Proceeding of the International Manufacturing Leaders Forum (IMLF), Adelaide, Australia, February 8–10, 2002. Lee J, Ni J. Infotronics agent for tether-free prognostics. Proceeding of the AAAI Spring Symposium on Information Refinement and Revision for Decision Making: Modeling for Diagnostics, Prognostics, and Prediction, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, March 25–27, 2002. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Figure 6 Application of E Manufacturing to Automobile Industry [8] [9] IX. BENEFITS OF E-MANUFACTURING E-Manufacturing is a fundamental change in the strategic value proposition for manufacturers. Its collection of systems, processes, and technologies that support and enable manufacturers to compete in collaboration with others has seven fundamental jobs: ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 WCE 2008

Liquid Chromatography Lab

Liquid Chromatography – Laboratory #18 Introduction: We are using liquid chromatography to separate the colored substances in grape-flavored drinks. We separate the component dyes, and then we separate the flavorings and citric acids. Background: Chromatography is a process that is used to separate a substance into its component parts. The separation occurs between the stationary and moving phase of the lab. The moving phase consists of a fluid and the stationary phase consists of a solid. The mixture we are trying to split up is integrated into the mobile phase.When the mobile phase interacts with the solid phase, the components of the mixture are attracted to the solid phase in varying degrees. Components with higher levels of attraction for the mobile phase result in a faster speed of transport throughout the solid phase. Components with higher levels of attraction for the solid phase result in a slower speed of transport throughout the solid phase. These differing levels o f attraction end up in separation of the mixture into component bands, which exit the system as distinct liquids. [pic] Liquid chromatography labs are composed of six main parts: . A separation column filled with a fine-grain solid. b. A solvent (mobile phase) that moves through the separation column. c. An injection system to transport the solvent to the separation column. d. A pump to force the solvent through the separation column. e. A detector to determine when the components exit the separation column. f. A recorder [pic] Although in most chromatography labs the solid phase is polar and the mobile phase is nonpolar, we are using Reverse Phase Liquid Chromatography, where the mobile phase is polar and the solid phase is nonpolar. Also read: Fluorenol PolarityWhen the mobile phase interacts with the solid phase, the polar parts of the mobile phase are attracted to each other, so they wash through the column quickly. The less polar components of the mobile phase are attracted to the nonpolar solid in the column, so they wash through the column slowly. This results in a separation of the components, whose degree is measured as the resolution. [pic] Pre-lab Questions 1. What is the process of chromatography used for? 2. In the chromatography, components of a mixture distribute themselves between the stationary phase and the mobile phase.Explain how the components can be separate with these two phases. 3. In the liquid chromatography column used in this experiment, the solid has a C18 hydrocarbon bonded to it. Would a C18 hydrocarbon be polar or nonpolar? Explain. 4. Below are the typical data for this experiment. 1 mL of a Kool-Aid solution was loaded on a Sep-Pak C18 Column. The red and blue dyes were eluted fro m the column with a constant flow of 18% isopropyl alcohol. The eluted solution was collected in a 10 mL graduated cylinder. The volumes of eluant were recoreded at the beginning and end of each color band. pic] Information: The first step in calculating the selectivity and resolution of the system is determining the volumes of eluant corresponding to the band widths and band centers for each eluted dye. a. Bandwidth W is the volume in mL of eluant containing each dye as it emerges from the column. Calculate the bandwidth W for each dye for each of the three runs and then determine the average bandwidth W average for each dye. b. Center of band, called Average Retention Volume V Rave corresponds to the center of each band.The average retention volume is calculated by taking the average starting volume for each band and adding one half the corresponding average band width. V Rave = V start + (? ) W ave Calculate the average retention volume volume V Rave for the red and blue dyes. c. For each dye, a capacity factor k' can be calculated. This term is a relative measure of the attraction of the dye for the stationary phase as compared to its attraction for the mobile phase. The equation fo capacity factor is : k' = (V Rave – V M)/V M here V Rave is the average retention volume for each dye and V M is mobile phase or eluant volume in the cartridge. V M can be estimated to be one half the cartridge volume, with the stationary phase occupying the other half. For the Sep-Pak cartridges, this V M value is . 49 mL. Calculate k' for each dye. d. A selectivity or separation factor, alpha, can now be calculated. This is the ratio of the k' values for each dye, with the larger value in the numerator. For good separation, a mobile phase is usually chosen that gives an alpha value between 2 and 10. Calculate alpha for this separation: alpha = (k' Blue)/(k' Red) e.The resolution R, a measure of how well the two dyes are separated by the column and eluant, is determined by the equation R = 2(V Rave Blue – V Rave Red)/(W Blue + W Red) where the numerator is the volume between the band centers and the denominatory represents the average band width. The greater the selectivity, the larger the numerator and therefore the greater the resolution. The resolution can also increase as the efficiency of the column increases, since this results in a lower average band width. Calculate R for this separation. Materials: Isopropyl Alcohol, 70% 50 mLIsopropyl Alcohol, 28%, 10 mL Isopropyl Alcohol, 18% 50 mL Isopropyl Alcohol, 5% 10 mL Graduated Cylinder, 10mL Graduated Cylinder, 25 mL Distilled Water, 300 mL Grape Koolaid Solution, 20 mL Sep-Pak C18 Cartridge 10 mL Syringe w/ male Luer tip Beaker, 100 mL, 3 Beaker, 50 mL, Safety Precautions: Isopropyl alcohol is inflammable and a fire hazard. Do not conduct this laboratory in the presence of flames. This alcohol is slightly toxic by ingestion and inhalation. Chemical-resistant goggles, gloves, and aprons are required. Wash and rinse hands thoroughly with soap and water after conducting the lab.Procedure Part 1: Isocratic Separation (Constant rate of flow and solvent concentration) Pretreatment of the Sep-Pak C18 Cartridge 1. Cut off the exit tube/shorter end of the cartridge at the point where it meets the body of the cartridge. 2. Load the syringe with 10mL of 70% isopropyl alcohol. 3. Connect the tip of the syringe to the long end of the Sep-Pak cartridge. 4. Pump the isopropyl alcohol through the syringe cartridge at a rate of 5-10 mL/minute. 5. Collect the alcohol in a 10 mL graduated cylinder to monitor flow rate. 6. Repeat previous steps with distilled water. Sample Injection . Use 10 mL syringe to slowly inject 1 mL of Kool-Aid solution onto the column. 2. Discard the effluent that washes out. 3. Remove the cartridge from the syringe. 4. Rinse the syringe with 10 mL of distilled water 3 times to erase Kool-Aid residue. Sample Elution 1. Fill the syringe with 18% isopropyl alc ohol eluant and attach the syringe to the Sep-Pak Cartridge. 2. Pump the alcohol through the cartridge with a flow rate of 5-10 mL/min. 3. Collect effluent in 10 mL graduated cylinder. 4. Record volume of effluent collected as first and last of colored drops of each of the dyes exit.If separation is imperfect, record data for beginning/end of intermediate purple bands. Center of the purple band acts as the end of the first band and beginning of the last. Column Regeneration Repeat measurements two more times. Between injections, wash the column with 10 mL of distilled water at the same flow rate of 5-10 mL/min. If colored residue remains, repeat preatreatment. Part 2: Step Gradient Separation Now, we change composition of the eluting liquid. We first use a polar solvent, and then we reduce the polarity of the solid phase by adding isopropyl alcohol.Through this, we wash out citric acid and flavoring oils in addition. Pretreatment of the Sep-Pak C18 Cartridge Follow the pretreatment in Part 1. Sample Injection and Component Elution 1. Inject 1 mL of Kool-Aid solution into the column. 2. Elute polar components of the mixture (citric acid and sugar) by passing 5 mL of distilled water through the column. 3. Collect effluent in the first small beaker. 4. Elute the red dye by passing 10 mL of 5% isopropyl alcohol through the column. 5. Collect effluent in the second small beaker. 6. Use 10 mL of the 28% isopropyl alcohol to elute blue dye. 7. Collect effluent in the third small beaker. . Use 10 mL of 70% isopropyl alcohol to elute nonpolar flavor oils and additives. 9. Collect effluent in the fourth small beaker. 10. Record the color of each effluent. Evaporate the solvents and examine the components. 1. Allow the solutions to evaporate and leave them overnight in the fume hood until next lab period. Label solutions properly. 2. Observe and describe contents of each of the beakers. Measure using color, odor, and appearance. Data Table Part 1: Isocratic Separation | |Red Dye |Blue Dye | | Run #1 |Run #2 |Run #3 |Run #1 |Run #2 |Run #3 | |Start of Band (mL) | | | | | | | |End of Band (mL) | | | | | | | |W (mL) | | | | | | | |Vrave (mL) | | | | | | | |K’ | | | | | | | Part 2: Step Gradient Separation Beaker |Eluant |Observations | |1 |H2O | | | | | | |2 |5% isopropyl alcohol | | | | | | |3 |28% isopropyl alcohol | | | | | | |4 |70% isopropyl alcohol | | | | | | Calculations Determine the following values and show calculations. Refer to question six in the Pre-Lab Questions. Enter results in the Part 1 data table. 1. Bandwidth W for each dye. 2. Average Retention Volume V Rave for each dye. 3. Capacity Factor k' for each dye. 4. Selectivity alpha for the two dyes with this isocratic separation. 5. Resolution R for the two dyes with this isocratic separation.Post-Lab Questions 1. What is meant by polarity of molecules? What causes differences in polarity? 2. In discussing solubility, the rule â€Å"like dissolves like† is frequently used. What does this mean? 3. Draw the structural formula of isopropyl alcohol. Explain how it differs in polarity from water. 4. For good separation of the dyes, the resolution should be greater than one. What was the value you calculated? Did the two dyes overlap as they emerged from the column, or was the separation a good one? 5. In the step gradient separation, four separate fractions were collected. How were these related to the polarities of the column and of the eluting solvent?

Germany and Sweden as Cmes

To what extent would you regard Germany and Sweden as coordinated market economies? 1. Introduction In an era where internationalism is contemporary, it has become crucial for countries to liberalize markets and renovate traditional structures. This is particularly important for countries whose social values and economic relationships are based on public coordination. This essay is going to explore the degree to which we consider Germany and Sweden as modern coordinated market economies, and the changes brought about in recent decades.To assess the changes we shall look at trends in trade union and employers’ association participations, collective bargaining reforms, training systems amendments, renewals in corporate governance and fluctuations of wage inequality; first by uncovering the basics in each element and then evaluating their stability in relation to globalization. 1. 1 What is a coordinated market economy (CME)?Being one of the wings of capitalism in which industria l relations and economic conditions are measured, as Bamber, Lansbury and Wailes (2011) state, CMEs can be used as â€Å"an approach for comparing†¦different countries, [with this comparison, it allows us] the understanding of convergence and/or divergence† between different economies. And in each of the key elements we mentioned, companies in CMEs resolve problems through relational, non-market based strategies and the outcome will be strongly dependent upon co-operation with supporting institutions. . 1 Past dominance of trade unions and employers’ associations A key feature of a CME is the dominance of employers’ association and trade unions within the country’s industrial relations; both Germany and Sweden have had a high degree of centralization during the 1980s. Trade unions were a powerful, acting as representative for labour in large corporations and also intermediaries of employment between labour and employers.A common characteristic is tha t the labour unions in the two countries manage institutions for all labour participation; Hancke (1996) states that in Germany, three quarters â€Å"of the members of works councils are union members and they coordinate actions with the labour union sections (Vertrauensleute). In Sweden, local â€Å"shopfloor clubs† (Verkstadsklubben) not only negotiate company agreements with the firm†¦[but also] recruit every newly arrived worker†.On the other hand, employers’ associations were also well-managed in both countries for a long post-war period; German industry federations are able to authorize private firms that are even no longer part of central arrangements on cases involved in collective bargaining, employee training and other social policies. In Sweden, Kurzer (1993) finds, â€Å"large companies in the export sector are part of financial conglomerates holding, which allows for high coordination capacities amongst large firms†. 2. 2 Recent trends i n membershipsHowever, both countries have become less concentrated in the recent decades as both have experienced less union and association densities for the massive individualization of enterprises and the falling popularity of collective agreements – now with the society seeing less value of group negotiations, which makes the industrial relations less compact compared to before. In Germany, both employers’ associations and trade unions have been experiencing a slump in the number of members since late 1990s.This is particularly evident in industries from Eastern Germany, where many organisations have resigned or become reluctant to join associations and took preference in company level negotiations. Shroeder and Silvia (2007) use the Metals Industry Employers’ Association to exemplify that employment density in Eastern Germany has fallen more severely than Western Germany. We can notice from the diagram below that since 1992, the percentage of Eastern associ ation density has decreased dramatically from over 65%, down to less than 25% in a decade.After the German unification, union members have clearly declined, Eurofound (2009) shows that â€Å"from 1991 to 1998, German Trade Unions lost almost 3. 5 million members†. The majority of these resignations were found to be eastern German labour, Eurofound states, â€Å"leaving the unions because of unemployment and disillusion with the western-type unionism†. Data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2013) further shows the downward sloping of German Trade Unionists density since 1999; from 25. 3% it has dismounted to 18. 8% in 2009.The main cause for this trend is due to the loss of traditional dominant union memberships in manufacturing industries and public sectors, worsened by issues in persuading younger generation in the expanding service industries within private sector. Hence, the value of collective agreements has been called into que stion as it is becoming extremely difficult to positively coordinate the relations between employers’ associations and trade unions. This is predominant in â€Å"a growing number of private services industries†, Eurofound informs, where â€Å"concluding collective agreements at all has shown to be increasingly difficult or not realizable†.Unlike Germany, Sweden on the other hand has dealt with much higher historical density in trade union members which suffered recent decline but continuously concentrated employers’ associations; the decrease in trade unionists is spread evenly between white-collar and blue-collar workers, men and women, and more problematic amongst the younger working generation who have less regard for unions – a drop in the private sector from 78% in 1993 to 65% in 2009 as shown in the table above; â€Å"the decrease in membership is mainly due to the government’s amendments of the fees to the unemployment benefits in Ja nuary 2007†, presented by Kjellberg (2007); the main objective to significantly amending the funds was to â€Å"to persuade unions with high fund fees to be more moderate in wage negotiations†. As for employers’ associations, unlike trade unions, its density has been rather stable over the years, with only 2% drop from 1995, private sector labour in 2009 has still got over 75% density in employers’ associations.Therefore, when compared to Germany, Sweden has a higher degree of coordination in balancing the density of the two sides of its industrial relations over the years, and has remained rather stable; if not long-term then this rather forecasts the near future of these two economies – the summary being Germany becoming more market-oriented with less collective participation of its social partners, whereas the Swedish economy is more likely to maintain a coordinated market in this sense. 2. 3 Decentralization of collective bargaining In this sect ion we will discover that the industrial relations within both countries are becoming more decentralized in the second half of 21st century as the level of collective bargaining decreases, and therefore moving further away from a coordinated market system;The initiation of Germany’s decentralization has actually long been observed by researchers since early post-war periods. Many have argued that the main outcome of this renewal was to avoid the rise of another â€Å"centralized super-state†, says Johnson (1973). In hope this will bring separated powers of legislation, politics and administration between the government, the federated states and the local authorities, to produce the ideal, ‘good government’. Following such perception, the German economy has been made key amendments in its industrial relations policies – extending its collective bargaining with opening clauses into agreements within sectoral level, making terms more flexible and less controversial.This has been seen as an improvement to prevent organisations from completely abandoning the usage of collective conditions. Such clauses were put into four categories listed by Schnabel (1998): 1) Hardship Clauses; enabling companies to be exempted from certain industry-level bargaining when facing bankruptcy and show signs of making viable strategies for future. 2) Clauses with Veto Rights; these give social partners such as managers and works council to negotiate particular agreements related to individual firms. 3) Clauses without Veto Rights; unlike the previous category, these clauses empower plant-level social partners to terminate collective terms that show signs of irrelevance with industry-level agreements. ) Small Enterprise Clauses; giving special treatment to small companies facing economic downturn by allowing them to set wages below the minimum level which was collectively agreed upon. In terms of the distribution of such opening clauses, the IAB Institu te for Employment Research (2005) shows that more than  Ã¢â‚¬Å"13% of the companies surveyed in both eastern and western Germany that are covered by collective bargaining confirmed that opening clauses exist in their collective agreements. Of these establishments, 52% made use of opening clauses in 2005†. However, even with such adjustments in the system, the use of opening clauses will rely heavily on the economic situation of the specific organisation. When the figures are favorable, then such clauses will be implemented less often.Compared to its neighbouring countries, Sweden has showed early signs of decentralization beginning late 1980s with government sharing more responsibilities with local administration; the most symbolic being the release of ‘free communes’, as mentioned by De Vries (2000), a system â€Å"in which a limited number of communes and counties were allowed to apply for dispensation of state laws, rules and regulations†. Together wit h the downsized central government, closer attention was then paid to market forces and began the establishment of â€Å"hollow states†. One of the nationwide movements was the erosion of collective bargaining within the past two decades, as social partners have become more willing to pass on the negotiation on wages and working hours to local level. For instance, certain terms on wages are left intentionally ambiguous to let the local level authority take charge and decide on the specific figures on final rates and figures.However, there still remains a high degree of controversy as employers harshly pursue a improvements in the bargaining system while attempting to take payment agreements to local levels – making to extremes in manual industries such as negotiating wages individually; the state is facing difficulties to respond to these demands, because from the perspective of economists, it is most ideal to be either highly centralized or as it was before, greatly d ecentralized, not somewhere in between. When making decisions, as debated by Eurofound (2009), parties at national level will consider the economy as a whole and correspond with a collective responsibility, whereas with enterprise leveled agreements, only individual firms’ stakes are considered – but when placed in the middle, parties often lose the acuteness in authority.The national coverage of collective terms remains a high figure in recent period; reported by Eurofound (2009), as much as 92% in 2001 and 91% in 2007 – however, such coverage figures is extremely misleading in this case with the decreasing rate of unionists and employers associations in Swenden – that is, although remaining high above EU average and constantly used as an indicator to measure the strength of bargaining powers and the extent of benefits received by social partners, less of them are actually being bounded by collective agreements in recent years, making the coverage less e ffective. 2. 4 Transforming education and training One of the most noticeable features of a CME is its highly proficient education and training system; the purpose is to have an extremely skilled labour force with skills specific to the industry or enterprise in which they are employed in. Culpepper (2001) states that in order for companies to coordinate employee capabilities and for workers to receive beneficial employment, there are various ways how a CME manages its training systems;In Germany, the responsibility of training and education is shared amongst firms and public authorities, â€Å"organized on a co-operative, tripartite basis†, referred by Hoffmann (2004); the German â€Å"Dual-system†, is acknowledged as world’s leading model for high-quality training, business practices and theoretical learning. The foundation of the dual-system is built by altering training in vocational schools and private firms, â€Å"while in-firm training is regulated natio nally, the vocational school instruction programs are the responsibility of the Lander (states)†, Trembaly and Le Bot (2003) mention. However, the durability of this system has been at the centre of debate ever since the elimination of the nation’s Training and Apprenticeship Law back in 1969.The model faces numerous challenges in meeting demand from rapid changes brought about by modern production systems; it is essential to keep a large working population to sustain its framework, but becoming problematic as currently Germany is having an ageing population, thus harder to recruit as many apprentices as forty years ago. As the occupational structure is dependent on collective agreement, when lacking skillful labour, Masden (1990) worries that if in such â€Å" difficult labour market situation, some firms [do not comply to regulations by] increasing wages to attract apprentices or, alternatively, poaching apprentices trained in other firms, then the whole system may p rogressively be brought into question†.The focus of this system also faces a huge dilemma between the increasing demand for theoretical learning amongst younger workers and the higher standard of skills wanted within productive systems, Gehin and Mehaut (1994) discuss it is potentially challenging the logics of the whole system while creating stocks of unskilled workers out of the job market. Additionally, issue is raised for the outpaced training speed against technical changes in the modern production system, especially for key requirements in multi-tasked occupations and practical de-compartmentalization. Kern and Schumann (1989) suggest that this trend of demand for â€Å"theoretical, general and vocational training are increasing and will continue to do so†. Therefore, if the dual-system were to be sustained, serious adjustments would have to be made to comply with modern requirements.Since the 1940s, new forms of vocational training have taken shape in Swedish org anizations, where the majority was still conducted by public institutes. This has started to shift, however, in the final quarter of the century, where responsibility began to move to local authorities from the central government. Following this trend of decentralization, the manufacturing industry in particular, has taken chance to put large investments into different training programmes to enhance productivity. But serious questions has been raised as trainees in the manufacturing sector face challenges â€Å"with the increased amount of theoretical education†¦as firms’ demand for workers with better theoretical knowledge† began to soar at the same time, Lundahl and Sander (1998) mention.With this given circumstance in Sweden, four models of education and training are used to demonstrate the degree to which coordination is deteriorating and decentralization has taken place; firstly, we have to acknowledge that the demand for labour competence has changed vastly with the increasing demand of formal education amongst new workforce and the general rise of demand for new products and practices in organisations. Within the industrial programme, the most controversial of all models, as Lundalh and Sander (1998) describe, a system in which inhibits a distinctive characteristic of â€Å"education in workshops† (arbetsforlagd utbildning); although very intensive and effective, it requires a large amount of time in workshops and includes theory as well as practical exercises. Many firms are reluctant to take initiatives as they argue that not enough human capital or time can be allocated to give proper training to each group of trainees.Continuously debated by researchers, such as Olofsson (1997), is the relevant application of the apprenticeship system onto modern organisations as its value has been rethought alongside secondary education, now deserted in most large cities, remaining exclusive to areas such as Svedala. The third model, Firmà ¢â‚¬â„¢s Schooling, is a highly demanding system that require 50% more time input and only submits students with outstanding performance, applied only in large enterprises such as Volvo or Scania where intensive training is seen as obligatory to match international competition. Lastly, Technical Programmes is widely accepted by municipalities with provisions of extra vocational studies, and also organizations can be more involved in supervision. It is a co-operation between groups of firms in terms of common facilities and cost-sharing, and has become more popular after producing impressive recruitment effects.According to Trembaly and Le Bot (2003), several amendments were proposed to reform the German system following the listed principles; â€Å"1) modernization of regulation, 2) inclusion of new occupational fields, 3) mutual recognition of the various parts of the system and 4) differentiation of training†. Hence, in order to adapt to evolving market demands, the German training system still is, and needs to be coordinated by public authority to a great extent to aid the private sector in improving employability, incorporating occupations and general training. As for Sweden, the transition of training responsibility onto individual organizations from local authority is due to its failure to provide emerging labour with desired competence.At the present, different methods are implemented by firms that deliver contrasting quality levels in training programmes; this is hugely differentiated from traditional forms of Swedish vocational training. The four models all demonstrate a degree of success but act more as a forecast of future vocational practices in Sweden – the extinction of conventional industrial programmes, further proving the liberation of Swedish economy from central coordination. 2. 5 New models for Corporate Governance In terms of corporate governance, a CME is established through the solid relationships between its financial inst itutions and private organizations. In this section we shall look specifically at the role of public financial institutions and other external stakeholders on the corporate operations of organizationsIn Germany, there was definitely a strong coordination of economic exchanges between industrial companies and institutions by means of cross-shareholding, supported by many scholars and again proves Hall’s relational view of CMEs; such â€Å"close relationships and interlocking between board members of different companies† and financial institutions such as banks and insurance companies, Hopt and Prigge (1998) also support, which composite the country’s main characteristics of corporate governance, together with heavy reliance on personal connections. It is essential to discover the features of the German model before discussing the reforms in recent years; there is a universal banking system that permits banks to possess equity shares in industrial organisations â €“ allowing banks to alter company’s decisions. Porter (1992) refers this as the â€Å"shareholder direction† situation since more the equity share, the larger the influence. This relationship between banks and firms is long-term and fairly stable because as well as equity, the banks also provide a large share of debt and carries operational management in the firms’ finance, this strongly protects companies from being taken over.To get further involved with company decisions banks are able to release proxy votes, as clarified by Onetti and Pisoni (2009), â€Å"this is done in relation to votes related to direct equity shares, [for instance by exercising] the voting rights for the shares that retail customers deposit with them†. Consequently, this gives more authority to banks in public firms. Since the German model is heavily influenced by banks, the stock market has therefore a small role to bear in corporate governance, proved by the IMF World Econo mic Outlook (2007) the fact that during 1990 to 2005, the capitalization as a percentage of GDP in Germany was only 38%, compared to 132% in UK, a much more liberal market economy.Since the shareholding in Germany is usually long-term with companies, there is a reciprocal of equity connections between firms themselves and firms and banks, creating a system of cross-sharing. Despite its robust features mentioned, the Germany corporate governance system is bending due to socio-economic changes brought about internally and externally; the globalization of Germany markets, enabling the listing of top companies on international stock exchanges, such as Daimler being traded on the New York Stock Exchange. There is a substantial increase in the amount of foreign investment in domestic industries, referred to by Jurgens et al. (2000) as the â€Å"turning point in the transformation of the German system of corporate governance.Due to recent economic recessions that caused a wave of bankrupt cies in German markets, banks have started to reduce the amount of their corporate equity in shareholding as more value is discovered in freer financial markets, stated by Jurgens and Rupp (2002), and began to focus more on economic performance; this in turn gave more freedom to the financial market legalizing numerous new financial choices for companies. On the other side, Swedish corporate governance consists of a great division of ownership from control by means of â€Å"pyramids, dual class shares, and cross-holding [that] increases the potential for private benefits of control†, cited by Holmen and Knopf (2004).The basic structures are formed by two types of partnerships; first, it is between entrepreneurs and rich families, then there is the alliance between engineers and technology innovators. Sometimes Sweden is described as an extreme version of â€Å"Rhineland model†, as Habbard (2008) stresses, it contains corporations that are owned by big industrial groups , â€Å"privileging organic growth† and features of a typical CME. Taking a closer look at the Swedish model of ownership we notice that the power is usually held by one to two owners, who are most of the time wealthy families. Henrekson and Jakobsson (2003) conclude that â€Å"regarding controlling ownership, the Swedish ownership model thus resembles the predominant corporate governance model on the European continent†.The rigidity and concentration of this structure has been based on a few important Swedish families and banks, Habbarb (2008) continues; Wallenberg, Lundberg, Stenbeck, Klingspor, Von Horn families and Svenska Handelsbanken SHB, Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken SEB banks. There are two main fundamental differences when Sweden is compared to other European corporate models; the whole ownership of shares on the stock exchange is controlled by just a few holders. Secondly, the capital base that this ownership is constructed on, is usually much smaller compar ed to other EU countries. Nevertheless, even the most stable models have their weaknesses. During the last two decades, there had been some drastic transformations in the corporate models within Swedish organizations.The most challenging is the rise of foreign investment and ownership in domestic firms. This has been more dramatic than any other industrialized countries in Europe, shifting the power of control and operation from foreign owners. Hence, as Henrekson and Jakobsson (2003) propose, new models are likely to form under the inadequacy of the traditional one; first and the least likely it is the complete ownership by foreign investors – where domestic firms transform into subsidiaries to companies such as multinationals. â€Å"Dispersed ownership†, as in shared ownership between foreign investors and Swedish owners where no one supersede the other in terms of control.Having an external institution such as the state pension or corporatist as owners; more probabl e as currently joined with the central government they are already biggest shareholders of stock exchange. Lastly and most likely to surface is the ownership by entrepreneurs supported by public authorities; especially during crisis where governments put more faith in worthy investors to The observed changes in the financial exchanges within German economy forecasts a certain extent of convergence towards a market-oriented financial model. However, due to the deep roots of German customs in its bank-firm relation, certain aspects of its corporate governance will remain nchanged in the near future due to the emphasis placed on â€Å"Mitbestimmung, or co-decision and co-responsibility† culture quoted by Hacketal et al. (2003) and other scholars in defense of the German persistency in relational structure. On the other side, the predictions for corporate governance amendments are various in shape and none will be take over completely in the future. Some conceive of more coordina tion from the government and other less so. But it is for certain that the old model will lose its dominance over time and the Swedish overall corporate structure will become more market-oriented for economic wellbeing. 2. 6 Wage distribution and inequalityA CME should not only have a highly skilled workforce but when compared to liberal market economies, it should also high wage levels with low dispersion across different deciles of its population. It is essential to look at our two countries starting from the 1990s to have a deeper insight of the impact of the great recession upon its income distributions over the following years, and to verify whether the advancement in modern socio-economic models have weakened their coordination powers. From the study conducted by Bach, Corneo and Steiner (2007), there proved to be a general rise in the dispersion of German market incomes between 1992 and 2003.Using the Gini coefficient, as a â€Å"standard summary indicator† to measure the equality of income levels we can observe that dispersion of market income from the average earners has increased substantially since the 1990s; from 0. 6155 it has gone up to 0. 6522 in 2003. As detailed by the following table, the median income has dropped by more than 30%, being â‚ ¬12. 496 per individual in 1992, compared to â‚ ¬8,173 in 2003. An obvious trend is the accumulation of market income on the top percentile of income earners. Back in 2003, around 41% of total market income was composited within the higher percentile earners. Bach, Corneo and Steiner further point out that â€Å"this group was formed by about 640 individuals, with an average income of 16 million euro, excluding capital gains†.The sources of rising inequality in German income levels are as follow; the unemployed numbers have steeply gone up in the past two decades, Biewen and Juhasz (2010) note that in 2005, there were an estimated peak of five million people registered out of work, with â€Å"more unemployment growth concentrated in the lower part of the income distribution†. This creates a larger income inequality as a huge segment of the low-income population is unemployed, losing their potential income. The different changes in taxation schemes; although it was reduced overall, it has favored top income earners than the rest, distorting the original distribution of income levels.Moreover, the transition in domestic structure such as more single parents and smaller family sizes that have drastically differed from past family average income patterns, as studies by Peichl et al. (2010). Lastly, with the ageing population; Germany now has a much narrower age segment of young adults, and a greater demand for qualification in addition to other factors in demographics that contribute to the wider dispersion of income levels. Although at a very low level, Sweden has also experienced an increasing inequality of income distribution in its income market. The trend has began since the early 1990s, caused if not worsened by the economic crisis, noted by Palme et al. 2003), as the Gross Domestic Product had been consecutively negative for three years 1990-1993, together with the declining employment rate that is more than 10 percent during the period. Then there was an increased number of workers involved in labour market policies, Palme (2006) mentions that† triggered a crisis for the public finances which was then responded by a combination of tax increases and benefits cut†. This had further burdened households’ income levels. We can see from the table that there was a decrease in annual average disposable income from 1992 (1991 as the base year) with â‚ ¬138,000 to â‚ ¬126,000 in 1995, that only managed to pick up again in 1997.However, the figures provided by Fritzell (2001) showed an upward trend of average disposable income levels after the crisis; first, it was due to the rapid rise in capital gains hat helped th e top income percentile with higher earnings, secondly, the wage per hour was increased in all registered occupations. , this was however, slowed down by the growing unemployment in the same period. To measure the inequality of income dispersion, we will again use the Gini coefficient and the poverty rate. The inequality has risen since the beginning of 1990s, Palme (2006) proves, from 0. 219 it has increased to its peak – 0. 279 in 2000. The reason is the adjustments in the taxation systems that strongly affected households in making serious financial decisions. Despite the economic slump during the 1990s, poverty rate in Sweden has not changed largely which is phenomenal considering the extent of the recession all European countries faced.It is not until 1999 where poverty started to pick up but is again astonishing as Swedish employment figures were still healthy even when compared internationally. Conclusively, German central coordination is losing its battle to market po wers, becoming less effective in moderating wage equality in recent decade, as the intention of keeping a low dispersion of income levels has began to give way modern socio-economic developments. Sweden, however, when compared to the rest of European countries, is doubtless a strongly CME in terms of moderating its equality of market income levels and keeping its poverty rate to the lowest and most stable within the union. 3. ConclusionChanging demographics, socio-economic and technological patterns have created mass distortion in traditional market structures in both Germany and Sweden. After looking at them in five different aspects, we learn that there is decreasing participation of social partners in collective terms in both countries but much less in Sweden, thus a decreasing value for collective bargaining; wage inequality is more dispersed in Germany than in Sweden; while corporate structure in both countries have become more market-oriented in time but still retains usage of old models; and German still contains a mixture of public training whereas Sweden is moving quicker towards privatized programmes.Conclusively, although both countries have become less coordinated than few decades ago, Germany has got a greater degree of decentralization compared to Sweden, taking higher level of reforms in its economic structures while Sweden tends to cling more onto traditional coordination values. 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The effectiveness of transitional justice mechanisms in Afghanistan. Is justice complementary or contradictory - Dissertation Example From decades of persistent strife and suffering to establishing the Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission, the country has come a long way towards the establishment of peace and security in the nation. However the success of transitional justice processes in the country remains precarious due to the ongoing security issues, political instability, and lack of political will. Recent years have however shown significant progress towards restoring normalcy in the country as is apparent from the rising awareness among the public and the need to end the culture of impunity. List of abbreviations used AIHRC Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission AC Amnesty Community ANDS Afghan National Development Strategy ARTF Afghanistan Reconstruction Trust Fund HRVC Human Rights Violations Committee ICC International Criminal Court ICTJ International Centre for Transitional Justice CSO Civil Society Organisation DDR Disarmament Demobilization and Reintegration HRW Human Rights Watch RRC R eparations and Rehabilitation Committee SATRC South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission TJCG Transitional Justice Coordination Group TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission Contents Ch. No. Topic Pg. No. 1. Introduction and Methodology 5 1.1. Introduction 5 1.2. Aim 6 1.3. Method and outline 7 1.4. Limitations 9 1.5. Literature Review 10 2. Transitional Justice in Afghanistan 17 2.1. History of transitional justice 18 2.2. Bonn Agreement 21 2.3. Current status of transitional justice in Afghanistan 23 3. Challenges to transitional justice in Afghanistan 26 3.1. Political environment 27 3.2. Lack of international and domestic political will for justice 28 3.3. Weak and malfunctioning judiciary 30 4. Interventions aimed at effective transitional justice 34 4.1. Truth and reconciliation commissions 34 4.2. Amnesty 40 4.3. Legal Reforms 43 4.4. Lustration 44 5. Recommendations for effective transitional justice 45 5.1. Evaluation of successful transitional justice in South Afric a 48 5.2. Recommendations for effective transitional justice in Afghanistan 60 6. Conclusion 64 1. Introduction and Methodology â€Å"Peace is the only battle worth waging† Albert Camus1 1.1. Introduction The past couple of decades have witnessed significant progress in terms of the popularity and acknowledgement of transitional justice mechanisms as fundamental to peace building in post conflict countries. The concept of transitional justice entails establishment of various mechanisms such as truth commissions, reparations, trials and judicial proceedings with a view to punish the perpetrators of past crimes and preventing a culture of impunity in the process. However this approach of ‘digging up the past’ has been widely debated in recent years due to the arguments put forward by critics stating that such mechanisms are likely to cause chaos and disrupt the existing peaceful environment leading to severe internal strife and fragmentation of an already divided s ociety. Proponents of the process on the other hand maintain that the transitional justice mechanisms are imperative in order to assist and guide any society from social, cultural and political deterioration towards healing and democracy by restoring human rights and punishing the crimes

An analysis of pericles' funeral oration from thucydides Essay

An analysis of pericles' funeral oration from thucydides - Essay Example Pericles, the son of Xanthippus was chosen to give the oration to the first batch of war victims2. Giving eulogy during the burial of war fighters who died during battle has been a custom to the Athenians and it was during such time that the speech of Pericles was given. People of different walks of life gathered to witness the interment of those who bravely fought for the freedom of Athens where a casket was used exclusively for a tribe so that there are many caskets paraded for the people to see. In addition, there is an empty casket which represents those whose bodies are not found. During the early period of the Peloponnesian War, Pericles was chosen to give the speech3 and he chose to be very discreet in voicing out his thoughts as expected from a man of integrity during his time. Pericles praised the Athenians in his eulogy first giving credit to their forefathers who have fought to protect the land that they are currently enjoying during that time, preserved and given to them by their great folks as an inheritance4. He also admired the latter version of their forefathers who equally endeavored to keep their lands free and have acquired more areas of land to add to what earlier Athenians have amassed for modern Athens. He boasted of Athens being a 1. Richard Hooker, Ancient Greece: Thucydides, (1996) http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/THUCY.HTM (accessed March 28, 2011). 2. Paul Halsall, Ancient History Sourcebook:Thucydides (c.460/455-c.399 BCE): Pericles' Funeral Oration   from the  Peloponnesian War  (Book 2.34-46), (2000) http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/pericles-funeralspeech.html (accessed March 28, 2011). 3. Loc. cit. 4. Halsall, loc. cit. trendsetter who never copied the laws of his neighbors instead became the influence to them in making their laws. The very reason why Athens was called a democratic nation, according to Pericles was because her administration favored the majority and not a chosen few, referring back to her laws which give equal justice and rights regardless of social status5. The true spirit of democracy, he proudly states, is not just about the freedom each citizen enjoys but the respect to the freedom that they have, not abusing the nation’s leniency but enjoying it while her citizens live up to the administration’s expectation, making efforts to maintain peace and order, safeguarding each other and the country. One of the things that Athens enjoys as a democratic country is not only the freedom to work and improve one’s financial status but her encouragement to her citizens to enjoy life as well. Sports have always been part of the Athenian history as a means of relaxation so that all year round, there is no lack of it. The great size of the city and its beauty draws people from around the world and Athens takes great pride in her attitude towards foreigners, not driving them away rather welcoming them and treating them as importantly as they do to fellow Athenians. In connec tion to this, the military policy is another consideration that Pericles discussed in his speech which he admired in contrast to Sparta’s, saying Athens shows liberality to foreigners who are attracted to the nation. The broad-mindedness of Athens allows the enhancement of bright minds to work well, her citizens being allowed what they want to do in contrast to their enemy who force their citizens to be physically fit ready for

Dwight Eisenhower Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dwight Eisenhower - Term Paper Example ncomparable with other military leaders after him and it is only a few generals that were before that could possibly match his tremendous leadership skills. When he became the thirty-fourth President of the United States, his exemplary leadership skills played out as he efficiently carried out his obligation as the democratic leader of the US. As a result of the warnings of an impending war, Eisenhower was given the mantle to lead the Allied Forces in Europe as he became the Supreme Commander of the army alliance during the Second World War and the first supreme commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces (U.S. Army Center of Military History). It should be noted that it was his adept leadership skills that availed him this opportunity. The great General Dwight David Eisenhower is one of the greatest military leaders that history has ever known as this man was right there when the world needed his great leadership qualities as he helped save the world from the tyrannical Nazi regime of Adolf Hitler and this was achieved in collaboration with other great minds like himself. Eisenhower was a great military leader that had an unparalleled leadership quality and these attributes made him go through the ranks of the United States Military at a volatile period in world history. The period before the Second World War was a critical period in the history of the world and the United States of America and indeed a man in the mould of Eisenhower was needed to save the world from the shackles of tyranny and oppression as would have been the case if Hitler had succeeded in his bid to rule the world. Eisenhower made stern decisions that had an extensive effect on the United States and the world at large. He rose from obscurity to the platform of leadership and his ability to act as a mediator between two warring parties in the political and military spheres was top notch. As a Chief of Army Staff of the United States of America in 1945, the

Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 23

Case Study Example The company’s website offers customers a platform in which they can track their orders and make inquiries regarding their requests. Interestingly, the service is offered at very affordable rate. Therefore, it can be clearly stated that given UPS business strategy, the key success factors and risk that are responsible for the company’s fortune growth are, prompt response to customer needs. The success is also attributed to competition based pricing strategy and accuracy. The company’s ability to offer a service that enables customer track their order is a major milestone for the organization. In addition to the service, the UPS introduced another service that allows customers to change the destination of their orders before the order reaches its destination (Study mode, 2014). However, the company also faces when it comes to managing its fleet of cars and airplanes. Maintaining the huge number of vehicles and airplanes is very expensive for the company. The cars and planes require regular servicing because of the many trips that are made hence have to be in a good condition. Achieving the objective can be a daunting task to the management because it translates to more cash outflow. Conversely, the company also uses its staff to send orders to customer. Workers may fail to respond to customer’s orders promptly a situation that may extend the lead time for an order. Furthermore, they may fail to deliver according to the expectations of the customer, or even may not deliver. Moral issues put UPS operations at a risk (Study mode, 2014). The performance of UPS has been growing over the current years. In the year 2012 during the first month, the price of a share was $4.53 while the revenue stood at an estimated $5.4 billion. In the current financial year, the dividends of the company are expected to fall between $4.80 and $5.06. The fall represents a 6%-12% increase from the year 2012 which is a remarkable

Welfare Effects of a Tariff Essay Example for Free

Welfare Effects of a Tariff Essay Free trade necessarily works to the advantage of domestic consumers boosting their choice of goods and services, the quality as well as reduced prices while protectionism is considered by some to be disruptive and harmful to the efficiency of international trade besides harming consumer interests, but even so, trade has never been and may never be free. While free trade has various advantages; protectionism too has a few if not helpful, necessary benefits to a country, Feenstra Taylor (2007). These benefits are hardly set in stone and depend on manifold factors which are equally variable and thus determining the true effect of a tariff requires a case by case assessment of the effects. This essay will asses the common reasons for the use of tariffs and presents the general welfare implications of the tariff on both small countries as well as large countries. Background Tariffs are the most commonly applied ways of protectionism in trade so much so that the WTO was founded in part to create a frame work to allow countries to negotiate a reduction in tariffs in trade. A tariff refers to customs, tributes, tolls or duties, or a schedule of them, imposed by governments on merchandise imported or exported as it crosses international borders. As such every country has a separate system of tariffs as well as regulations and tariffs may take one or more of the following forms; revenue tariff, specific tariffs, protective, ad valorem tariffs as well as protective tariffs each, according to their nature or differing objectives, Pugel Peter Lindert ( 2000). Revenue tariffs are imposed by governments not to bar importation but raise revenues and are mostly imposed on goods or services with inelastic import demand. On the contrary, protective tariffs are imposed by governments to keep out imports and thusly they are set as high as can be possible to render their domestic prices uncompetitive while protective tariffs aim at reducing imports enabling local production to compete with imports. Other classifications of tariffs are based on the nature of taxes and their administration and these in clued ad valorem tariffs which are imposed as a proportion of the value of imports while specific tariffs are simply imposed on imported goods and services according to their amounts in volume, weight or number and not their values. Intuitively, the reasons for the imposition of tariffs vary from protection of infant industries in less developed countries so they can mature and compete favorably with others to other protection of jobs in developed countries, Kraus (2000). In protection of fledge ling industries commonly touted as import substitution practiced by developing countries, tariffs are imposed on goods or services with local production that the country wishes to encourage growth. This would effectively raise the domestic prices of imports thusly rendering domestic products competitive on price terms and shields them from being edged out of the market through predatory pricing which will foster maturity of those industries and facilitate the transformation of less developed economies from agricultural to industrial economies. Tariffs are as well imposed to protect domestic jobs by shielding domestic industries from foreign competition. Lack of regulations, cheap labor, deplorable working conditions and export subsidies in foreign countries would make their exports more competitive price wise and to the disadvantage of local industries who must cut costs by laying off staff. This is well evidenced with the Chinese exports to the United States and European Union and the attendant controversy. Consumer protection is often another motive for imposition of tariffs aimed at stopping goods and services that the government deems harmful to its population. In addition, countries impose tariffs on goods and services that are seen as crucial to the national security. In this, regard defense industries enjoy special treatment as they are deemed important for the interests of a nation; a good example of this includes the protection of aircraft manufacturing industries Boeing and Air Bus in the United States and Europe respectively, Yarbrough Yarbrough (1991). Tariffs have as well been used as political instruments from the days of Alexander Hamilton in protecting infant industries which used tariffs on the back of which a new nation to the 21st century America imposing tariffs on imports from politically incorrect countries. Tariffs may as well be imposed on a country’s goods if their trading partners consider them as employing unfair practices for instance export subsidies. Retaliation can as well be used to achieve a number of political ends by countries. Welfare effects of a Tariff Small Country The welfare analysis begins with the case with a small country, not geographically but one whose import policies have no considerable impact on the international terms of trade, Bowen et al (1998). The analysis is a partial equilibrium analysis considering the market for a single good or service, this assumes that the market is relatively small to have a considerable effect on other markets and thusly it is safe to ignore those interactions. In addition, the model assumes that the tariff is in fact the only one imposed or one of only a few and thusly would not be appropriate in the analysis of welfare impacts involving the implementation of numerous tariffs as would be the case in a trade round. Consider the diagram below. Fig A The diagram shows the respective demand as well as supply curves of an imported good inside a country. The world prices represented as PW are assumed to be below the domestic prices shown in the diagram as by the direction arrow. Under autarky the quantity demanded from domestic production of good X is equal to the quantity indicated by the direction arrow between Stm and Dtm. When an autarky opens up to international trade, the domestic prices tumble to Pw so that there is an excess demand of good X in the country represented by Dft of which on Sft would be supplied by domestic producers at the prevailing world prices and as per the demand and supply curves. The consumer surplus in the country is given by the area above the world supply curve Pw but below the domestic demand curve, Pugel Peter Lindert (2000). . When a specific tariff t is imposed on good X, the world prices Pw would not be affected since a country’s imports are relatively small to have any considerable effect on the world prices and demanded quantity, instead, a tariff would have the impact of raising domestic prices by the amount of the tariff to reach Pw+t. The rise in domestic prices would induce local producers to step up their production to Stm since below this level domestic production is more efficient than foreign production. Thusly the producer surplus would rise by the area shown in the diagram by A, thus this represents a gain by domestic producers due to increased prices and a rise in production resulting from the imposition.

Tram Accident and Alcoholic Beverages Essay Example for Free

Tram Accident and Alcoholic Beverages Essay Car accidents happen every day, and while some are inevitable, many are preventable. Although, in recent years, a number of innovative campaigns have been arranged to avoid car accidents, car crashes occur frequently. Mostly, car accidents occur due to rash and careless driving. Road accidents also happen sometimes due to disorderliness and lack of patience. So how can you prevent a car accident? The answer is very simple, use common sense and obey the rules of the road. First step in order to avoid car accidents is not to drunk because being in under the influence of drugs or alcohol affects vision, reaction time and attention. the best decision is to Choose a designated driver, Decide who is going to drive before you go out, and make sure that person do not drink any alcoholic beverages. Furthermore you should call a taxi. . If nobody in your group is sober, take alternate transportation. Many of the fatal accidents are because of drunk driving. However, drunk driving is completely preventable. Another important thing that should be considered is to put on seat belt while driving. Wearing seat belt would be annoying for many people. But, this is highly vital, as wearing seat belt would reduce the chances of road accidents. Not only drivers, passengers including adults and kids are also recommended to put on seat belt. This will reduce the risk of a serious injury if you are involved in a car accident. These tips are all just common sense. They seem like such simple actions, but they can cause or prevent an accident. It just depends if the driver of the car, follow the rules of the road.

Whole School Approach To Behaviour For Learning Education Essay

Whole School Approach To Behaviour For Learning Education Essay B4L is a concept that has been developed through a review of effective behaviour management strategies. It has been identified that B4L is a result of a multitude of influences and not merely the desire of a learner to misbehave and unwillingness to learn. B4L identifies the link between students social conduct and behaviour and the way in which they learn. The study will focus on policies and practice to promote B4L. Research has identified the importance of motivating learners by improving teaching, making learning enjoyable in reducing behavioural issues and promoting B4L. Schools with good or outstanding teaching almost always have outstanding behaviour. The most successful schools set expectations of staff to deliver lessons that were varied and interesting, this has proven to increase attendance as well as reduce the incidence of unacceptable behaviour in lessons. The study identifies the importance of consistency within the application of policies, it also identifies a number of areas for improvement to promote B4L including the rewards system and use of detentions. Further research identifies the link between outstanding teaching B4L. Every opportunity to reward praise students should be taken, through verbal communication and point allocation. It is important that any policy in place is agreed and embraced by all staff to ensure that it is delivered consistently. Introduction The need to manage behaviour has long been an issue within schools. With the push on raising attainment, the development of Special Educational Needs (SEN) provision and the increase in policy, to be inclusive of all learners irrespective of their academic level or their social behaviour. It has been identified that 20% of all SEN learners have Social Emotional Behavioural Difficulties (SEBD) (Department for Children, Schools Families, (DCSF) 2009). The schools policy sets out high expectations of students, We expect students to reflect this in their appearance, attitudes and behaviour. We know we are moulding the citizens of the future and will encourage them to care for one another, be open, fair, honest and just. We want them to have a sense of pride in being part of our school community. (Appendix 1). Further to this the schools vision is to raise achievement by developing a culture where learning is at the heart of the school community. To achieve this vision the school identifies whole school priorities for 2010/2011 including improving behaviour and attendance. It also stated that the school will focus on incorporating Social, Emotional aspects of Learning (SEAL) practice in the classroom, which has been identified as an important key in developing learners emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1996 cited in Capel, Leask Turner 2009, p.141) providing learners with the skill set to monitor and improve their behaviour independently. It was clearly identified in the School Development Plan that Behaviour for learning (B4L) is a targeted area for improvement (Appendix 1). This was reinforced as a high priority area during staff meetings and subsequent correspondence from the Head Teacher. Issues that arose were the use of mobile phones MP3 players within lessons, consistency in the application of sanctions and use of rewards (Appendix 2). It is interesting to note that these both encompass the teacher and the learner identifying the diversity of the issues. It would be interesting to further enquire as to whether the use of mobile phones within lessons is a B4L issue or a sign of disengagement due to other factors. Understandably there is a close link between the quality of learning, teaching and behaviour, and therefore raises the question Can behaviour be improved through improving the quality of learning teaching? The school clearly identifies that there is a need to reinforce their policies on B4L. Through i nitial observation around the school it was interesting to note the overall behaviour of students occurring both in and out of lessons, there was frequent use of inappropriate language, fighting and a significant littering problem. During lessons students often refused to do any work, persistently had their mobile phones out and there was significant level of unrequired talking during lessons. This posed the question Is the school being pro-active in managing behaviour for learning or re-active to behaviour that has now reached undesirable levels? Behaviour management is often flagged as an area that Initial Teacher Education (ITE) students feel they would benefit from having greater support in when entering the profession of teaching (Buell et al., 1999 cited in Powell, S, Tod, J, 2004). This has been met by the expectations set by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) via the Qualifying to Teach, the new standards and requirements for Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) (TTA, 2002). B4L is a concept that has been developed through a review of effective behaviour management strategies. It has been identified that B4L is a result of multitude of influences and not merely the desire of a learner to misbehave and unwillingness to learn. It is important to identify the theoretical principles behind the way in which learners manifest themselves in terms of behaviour (Powell, S, Tod, J, 2004). B4L identifies the link between students social conduct and behaviour and the way in which they learn. Recent national policy has moved away from a punitive system where students were punished for doing something wrong, known as being reactive, and are now working towards understanding what causes learners to be off task and display undesirable behaviour, pro-active, as supported by Weare (2004 cited in in Capel, Leask Turner, 2009, p.141) who suggested that a punitive approach tends to worsen or create the problems it is intended to eradicate. Punishment alienates children from their teacher and does nothing to build up trust which is the foundation of relationships. National policy now promotes the inclusion of a greater diversity of learners in schools irrespective of level of achievement or social behaviour (Department for Education Employment (DfEE), 1999). It is important for schools to recognise this and develop strategies to promote B4L as over 20% of SEN provisions are learners with SEBD (DCSF, 2009). SEBD learners by nature can display undesirable behaviour unless managed in a positive way, so would it not be deemed unacceptable from an education professionals view for a learner predisposed to display poor behaviour, to fall victim to punitive actions? It is therefore important for schools to have a well-structured B4L policy that coincides with the SEN policy. In order for schools to develop an effective policy they must be able to identify the complexity of factors that influence behaviour and clearly identify what is considered an unacceptable level. Do schools have a standard response to unacceptable behaviour with clear sanctions regardless of the severity of the behaviour witnessed? The Elton report (1989) defines misbehaviour as such that raises concern to teachers. This clearly has limitations as it is dependent on the individual teacher and within the context of which it occurs. This can cause numerous issues within schools as inconsistencies can arise due to teachers individual views of unacceptable behaviour, as reported by Ofsted (2006). Ofsteds (2008) report identified the importance of all staff sharing clear expectations of pupils. The report showed that the most successful schools had strong senior leaders that supported staff through training. They also had clear behaviour policies instated that are implemented consistently by all staff, which clearly proves that by providing clear instruction of policies to staff and the consistent application of them is fundamental in controlling negative behaviour in schools. Disruptive, challenging, anti-social, emotional behavioural difficulties (EBD) are widely used terms by teachers to describe a students behaviour (Capel, Leask Turner, 2009,). These however do not clearly identify the actual behaviour and the causation. It is important for teachers to not merely state that a child is being disruptive but record what they were doing to be disruptive and why. In order to be proactive rather than reactive staff need to have dialogue with the offender to discuss what happened, who was affected and acknowledge the learners views. This falls within the restorative approach and is essential in developing a learners emotional intelligence. Far too often learners are punished and do not know exactly what they were doing wrong or resolve the underlying issue. It is difficult to define unacceptable behaviour on a National whole school level due to the perceptions, tolerance threshold, and experience management approach of teachers. These inconsistencies can lead to confusion amongst pupils and lead to teachers being pin pointed as being strict and inconsistent in comparison with the rest of the school, which can cause tension and ultimately a breakdown in student-teacher relationships (Weare, 2004 cited in Capel, Leask Turner, 2009, pg141). It is therefore essential that schools adopt a well-structured monitoring and reporting policy which relates to the observable actions of pupils. The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (2001 cited in Capel, Leask Turner 2009, pg145) generated a list of 15 behaviours by which pupils emotional and behavioural actions could be defined, these were sub-divided into three categories learning , conduct and emotional. Ofsted (2008) identified persistent low-level disruption as the most common for m of poor behaviour. There is an abundance of research on behavioural management strategies. However behaviour still remains an area of concern for schools. It was also raised as an issue for newly qualified teachers (NQT) who expressed that they would benefit from additional support in behaviour management in preparation for teaching (Powell, S, Tod, J, 2004). In response the Behaviour Management Review Group (2004) conducted a review into the theoretical explanations of behaviour, in order to enhance teachers understanding of the causal factor of behaviour. By providing teachers with a theoretical framework to model their management strategies around, Initial Teacher Trainees (ITT) will not feel the need to continually find new strategies to cope with behavioural issues. The review highlighted the complexity of learning behaviour and the contributing factors of societal, family and school environments that influence pupil behaviour basing their model on Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory (1989 c ited in Powell, S, Tod, J, 2004) (Appendix 3) . This obviously highlights a barrier to addressing B4L, as teachers do not have input during all environments. It is therefore important that schools need to develop and maintain relationships with students, parents carers, which was identified in the Ofsted Report (2009), as still needing some improvement. The conceptual framework used within the review by the Behaviour Management Review Group (2004) identified the importance of relationships in shaping learning behaviour. The model identified the relationship of a learners with others, the curriculum and themselves. When observing a learners behaviour a teacher must consider if the curriculum is relevant in the learners eyes, does the learner feel they can achieve what is asked of them? Does the learner have a strong relationship with their teacher and peers? This is supported by Evans et al, (2003 cited in Capel, Leask Turner, 2009) who suggested the key to promoting a positive lea rning environment by improving learning behaviour is characterised through the development of positive relationships and developing an appropriate emotional climate in the classroom. It is in all teachers interest to take responsibility for B4L focusing on developing positive relationships with learners. Several reports have identified the importance of motivating learners by improving teaching, making learning enjoyable in reducing behavioural issues and promoting B4L. Schools with good or outstanding teaching almost always had outstanding behaviour. The most successful schools set expectations of staff to deliver lessons that were varied and interesting, this has proven to increase attendance as well as reduce the incidence of unacceptable behaviour in lessons. Schools reported improved attitudes towards learning and an improvement in monitoring students achievement (Ofsted, 2001; 2006; 2008). Ofsted (2008) continued to acknowledge the need to improve behaviour as 28% of secondary schools displayed no better than satisfactory behaviour. Other contributing factors to improve B4L included consistent acknowledgement of achievement and use of a reward system to promote positive behaviour. Often schools do not provide consistent administration of reward systems and it has been seen that often teachers cease to use reward systems past Yr7 and very rarely into Key stage 4 (Ofsted, 2001, pg26). This was identified within the study school during a staff meeting where senior management had gathered information during student council raising the issue that older students still liked receiving reward points, where it had been presumed by staff that it was no longer effective. The study will focus on the schools current policy on behaviour for learning and how this is implemented on a daily basis. Through a review of the schools current policy and staff views the study will hope to identify areas for improving B4L providing recommendations for the future. The study will focus on current school issues including inappropriate use of mobile phones, reward system and sanctions. Methodology The research will aim to identify the current issues within the school surrounding B4L schools current strategies to improve B4L. To gain an in-depth review of the schools current B4L issue the study will focus on the implementation of B4L strategies through direct informal observation. This allows a high degree of validity by monitoring the focus in its setting of actual use. The limitation of this is that actual situations may be skewed due to the presence of the observer and it is therefore important for observation to occur over a period of time so those being observed become less aware of the observers presence. To promote this the observer should not become involved or drawn into the social interactions with those being observed. A significant limitation to observation is that the observer will have to interpret what they witness without confirmation from the subject. This limitation will be reduced by following observations with unstructured interviews as used by Frederikson, et al (1996) which allows subjects to express a more detailed insight into the topic. Data across the school will be analysed to identify any trends in negative behaviour. A view of the whole school approach towards behaviour will be obtained through analysis of the current policies along with statistical data from the Schools Information Management System (SIMS). Further to this, interviews will be arranged with lead staff on B4L. Over a period of a week a number of lessons were observed and followed up with informal discussions with the teacher. The observations were focused on identifying the levels of engagement of students, any behavioural issues and how they are addressed by the teacher and level of teaching learning. Through further discussions post-lesson, staff members were asked on their views of the lesson and how they feel the students level of behaviour impacted on the learning. In addition to this the reward policy was reviewed and the application of it was observed in lessons. The main purpose of this study was to review existing policies on improving B4L including behavioural and reward policies and the consistency of their application. Findings Whole School The schools Ofsted report (2009) identified that students behaviour was not always as good as it should be with instances of boisterous behaviour. Inspectors found behaviour to be satisfactory overall, but variable. The report stated too many lessons lack challenge and do not take sufficient account of students individual capabilities or encourage independent learning. They also noted that the quality of marking and feedback was varied across the school. The report went on to suggest that teaching was not challenging on a whole school stage did not provide students with the opportunity to make progress, develop confidence and develop the skills to work independently. This could contribute to poor B4L as the lack of development of learners emotional intelligence can restrict learners from being able to monitor and improve their behaviour (Goleman, 1996 cited in Capel, Leask Turner 2009, p.141). The report continues to identify that teaching can be too directed and does not take into account the differing abilities of learners; the school needs to ensure that lesson activities consistently challenge students of all ability groups to make better progress and develop their independent learning skills, especially at Key Stage 4. Behaviour Policy In the first instance the school has a well-structured behavioural policy with the aims of providing a caring and secure environment by promoting positive behaviour, regular attendance, self-discipline and respect for others. It clearly states that consistent, yet flexible implementation of the policy by all is essential. This goes on to refer to special considerations for vulnerable groups such as SEN. This initially raises the issue of how flexible the policy should be whilst trying to remain consistent. As identified by the school as a high priority target, the policy states mobile phones MP3s can be confiscated when it disturbs the learning environment. The policy goes on to set out five expectations that should be maintained at all times (Appendix 4, Pg2). The policy has a clearly structured sanction system and identifies methods for recording behavioural infractions through SIMS. Through analysis of data on SIMS it is clear that teaching staff are thorough at recording behavioural incidents that occur during lesson with details of the incident. Some teachers used the data as a motivational tool in tutor time by sharing positive and negative points with students and setting them goals for the week. This was particularly effective with year 7 students who were very keen to see how many points they currently had. Sanctions The school sanction policy followed a ladder system which identified different sanctions for the level of behaviour displayed (Appendix 4, pg11). It was interesting to note that the column labelled examples of behaviour use general descriptive terms such as disruptive behaviour, persistent disruptive behaviour, disrupting the learners of other. It also groups various types of behaviour which a student may display. Many of these behaviours were identified by the QCA (2001) as either being learning behaviours, conduct behaviours and emotional behaviours and therefore individual and definitive in the way they should be met. All of the responses to behavioural issues bar the first incident result in a punitive response primarily of detentions at different levels. It is not until the fourth level when students are displaying persistent disruptive behaviour, three negative SIMS in a week in the same lesson and failing to attend a detention that meetings are set in place with the students a nd senior staff to discuss expectations. During observation of lessons the majority of incidences occur within the first three steps of the sanction flowchart which were often dealt with accordingly. It was however noted that not all staff made contact with parents as suggested when placing students in break lunch time detentions. On most occasion students are asked to stop what they are doing if disruptive to the lesson or asked to sit out as not to hinder the other students learning. The teacher then resolved the issue with the learner, by setting clear expectations of the student, then allowing them to join back in the lesson. If continual disruptive behaviour occurred, staff then proceeds to give the students a break time or lunch time detention depending on the severity of the behaviour. It was noted that the relationship between offences and consequences were inconsistent in application by different staff and dependent upon the individual learners. Often students who were kno wn to staff to be persistently difficult tended to be flagged up quicker for their behaviour compared to others. This often led to some students feeling that they were victimised by staff. During detentions in the Physical Education department students were asked to sit in an allocated area for the duration. Often this area had other students around and friends of the student in detention would come in and sit with them. It was also unclear as to the purpose of the detentions, was it time for the student to reflect on their actions or simply used to punish by taking up the students free time? Most conversations between teachers staff were one-sided and did not necessarily allow the student to resolve or discuss their actions. It was clear that the application purpose of detentions needed to be reviewed as supported by the departments views during a departmental meeting. If students repeatedly offended they were placed on report. This involved the students achieving their individually set behaviour targets each lesson. This allowed closer monitoring of the students behaviour in all lessons. The targets set on some reports were often too general and allowed flexibility in the judgement of the outcomes by teachers. The reports were useful as they facilitated conversation with the student and teacher at the end of lessons developing relationships and providing opportunity for the student to reflect on their actions over the lesson. It was noted that often students would lose their reports or not get their reports completed every lesson with little consequence when given to tutors. This raised an issue of the unimportance and disregard of the severity of being on report by students. If students ultimately did not improve their behaviour this would lead to a behavioural support program and the risk of internal and potentially external exclusion. Data Analysis Data was gathered from the school monitoring reports and SIMS (Appendix 5). Over the last three years there has been a decline in exclusions from 137 to 96 and withdrawals from 380 to 186 within the whole school. However Disruptive behaviour has returned to high levels from a dip in 2009/10 rising from 3983 up to 4424. By analysing the three areas it can be seen that although the amount of exclusions and withdrawals has decreased, this is accounted for by the contributing percentile increase of disruptive behaviour (Appendix 6). By analysing the SIMS reports for the whole school the most prevalently recorded behaviour incidents highest first were; Disruptive behaviour Inadequate work completed in a lesson Defiance Failure to complete homework, Truancy Rudeness to a member of staff Ignoring regulations Use of mobile phone/ MP3 in lesson Failure to attend detentions Dangerous behaviour Persistent lack of equipment Disruptive behaviour was by far the highest rating incident recorded, consistent with the Elton report (1989), which identified low-level disruptive behaviour as the most prevalent poor behaviour in schools. A significant number of reports of disruptive behaviour were due to talking out of turn. Disruptive behaviour levels were consistently high through all years with a decrease in years 10 11, this could be due to the responsibility of learning shifting towards the learners as they start preparing for GCSEs, and that the learners then have the opportunity to personalise their learning programme through options. Mobile Phone MP3s School data for 2010/11 identifies mobile phones as the 8th ranked occurring behaviour incident within the school. Through observation around the school it was clear that the use of mobile phones and music players had reached critical level and were continually causing disruption during lessons. Many students would arrive at lessons with mobile phones in hand and headphones in ears. It was good to see that on the majority of times students were challenged and told to put away their mobile phones and earphones at the beginning of a lesson. However this did not have a lasting affect as students often returned to using their mobile phones during lessons when the teacher was not aware of them. Some students continued to listen to music in lessons without being challenged, clearly identifying the issue of inconsistency with the implementation of the behaviour policy. It was clear that this behaviour was being communicated back to senior management, as during briefing the head teacher reit erated the schools policy and through further correspondence with particular focus on the use of mobile phones and music players (Appendix 2). In reaction to this release of policy staff started to clamp down on mobile phone use in lessons, however there were issues with the length of confiscation as this was not made clear. Some staff confiscated the phones till the end of the lesson, some till the end of the day and some even for the rest of the week. Although this revision and awareness of the policy certainly had an impact as staff soon felt empowered to confiscate students mobile phones it did not tackle the issue of as to why students were continually on their phones during lessons. It soon got to a point in some lessons where teachers were repeatedly taking mobile phones off the same students every lesson. Through discussions with students it was noted that students often resort to going on their mobile phones when feeling bored, disengaged in their learning or unsure of what they are doing. During a whole school meeting on B4L and the revised policy, various departments offered their views and strategies they have implemented to address B4L. The science department had set out a code of conduct with posters clearly indicating to students to put their bags and belongings in a designated area. This is felt to be an issue within the school as a whole as students are continuously carrying their belongings around in lessons and have them at easy reach during lessons, where it was suggested by getting students to leave their bags out of reach has helped reduce the distraction to their learning. Reward System The school operates on a house system where students belong to one of the five houses. Students can gain house points in the form of stickers to the value of 1, 5 and 10 points (Appendix 4, pg8. Each lesson students are able to gain stickers for achieving and taking part in a number of school activities. The ways in which students can achieve house points seem unobtainable on a daily basis for the majority of the school population. Through observations of tutor time students were asked to count up their points during the week, which were recorded onto SIMS. It appeared that on the whole students were receiving reasonably high amounts of points on a weekly basis including those who were known to staff as having regular behavioural problems. It appeared that the amount of points awarded were not consistent with the reward policy as students commented that some teachers were awarding high points for basic expectations of students which according to the policy only merited a single point . During the observation of physical education lessons it was apparent that the points system was not being applied as teachers expressed difficulty in physically awarding stickers during lessons due to the nature of the environment. However the staff did focus on recording positive behaviour on SIMS which the students seemed to respond to and want to achieve. Overall the observation of the reward system identified inconsistency in the administration of the house points and urgently needs reviewing and supported through discussion with staff. It was not clear within the school from a students perspective as to what the points contributed towards. There was no immediate or substantial reward for students who achieved in lessons. It was also clear that for some students particularly those who had been identified as SEN that points were awarded for demonstrating basic good behaviour which contradicts the reward policy that states, Points should not be awarded for students displaying the schools basic expectations as agreed by all staff (Appendix 4, pg9). The policy also states that individuals can have specific targets set to gain house points but this can only be sanctioned by faculty coordinators and year coordinators. Conclusion Based on the findings of this study it is clear that there is need for greater consistency in managing B4L even though the school has the well-structured policies in place. During a whole staff review meeting on B4L the head teacher acknowledged that the policy is not working due to inconsistencies in application. This is current with the rewards system, application of sanctions and addressing of poor behaviour, with particular reference to transition time between lessons and break time (Appendix 2). In order to improve levels of behaviour during break times the school could focus on providing structured sports sessions. Students currently have access to the courts and facilities which are supervised by the PE staff; however there is lack of structure. Through the Physical Education, School Sports Club Links (PESSCL) (2008) investigations it has been shown that by providing a range of clubs for the students, there has been an improvement in behaviour during lunchtime and afternoon l essons. Other schools have had success with students who have poor behaviour records and low motivation by providing them with the opportunity to develop their leadership skills and then run a sporting competition. This had a positive impact on the students self-esteem and attitude to learning (PESSCL, 2008). Ofsted (2000) identified that in schools where teachers agreed to follow procedures for supervision of corridors and outdoor areas between lessons, reduced behaviour incidents and increased punctuality. As identified in this study a large proportion of poor behaviour is due to the inconsistency in applying behaviour policies. Numerous studies have identified that in order to improve behaviour the school must tackle it as a whole school approach including attainment, teaching and attendance Ofsted (2006; 2000). Ofsted (2006; 2000) also highlight the importance of providing effective teaching that is interesting, structured and works to develop personal learning thinking skills. By developing these skills students will be able to work independently and take more responsibility for their learning. It is evident that B4L is directly related to Teaching Learning practice policy. Schools that have poor behaviour have often been seen to have ineffective teaching, this is concurrent with the study school as identified in the Ofsted report (2009).Several studies have identified that good teaching can promote good behaviour, creating a positive learning environment. By providing interesting lessons with clear learning objectives, clear expectations, differentiation and recognition of individual achievement learn ers feel positive about their learning and consequently act in a positive manner (Ofsted 2005;2008). There is a need for schools and teachers to be proactive in developing learning behaviour rather than simply being reactive to behavioural problems. It would be beneficial to prioritise the development of positive relationships with lear